The reflections and accounts in this paper were drawn from select engagements held during the Sasakawa USA Emerging Experts Delegation (SEED) program on Strengthening Disaster Risk Reduction through Women, Peace and Security in July 2024. The program brought U.S. disaster risk reduction (DRR) experts to Japan to learn about Japan’s progress in implementing Women, Peace and Security (WPS) in the disaster context by meeting with national and local governments, the private sector, and civil society organizations who work on these issues. This paper highlights the delegation’s engagements with academics at the forefront of research in DRR and gender in Tokyo. The delegates also participated in a field study in Tohoku and Noto to meet with local government officials and community leaders affected by the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake, and identified challenges, successes, and areas of opportunity for the U.S. and Japan to strengthen their respective and collaborative gender-inclusive disaster response efforts.
Natural disasters are a growing global challenge that demands effective international cooperation, particularly between nations like the United States (U.S.) and Japan. These events not only test the resilience of nations but also pose significant national security risks. The U.S.-Japan alliance, a cornerstone of security in the Asia-Pacific region, has proven essential in addressing these challenges. As both countries continue to develop and implement disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies, their collaboration becomes increasingly vital. This paper explores the DRR policies and activities of the U.S. and Japan, with a focus on the integration of the Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) agenda, which emphasizes the crucial role of women in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.
DRR Policy Approach
DRR is a policy objective focused on increasing a country’s disaster resilience by implementing practices that reduce disaster risks.[1] In the context of assessing resilience, disaster risk can be separated into three categories: unacceptable risks, acceptable risks, and residual risks.[2] Acceptable risks can be defined as identifying the tolerable impacts a country can incur.[3] As a country’s acceptable risks increase, so does its resilience. A country’s ability to prepare and recover directly affects its level of acceptable risks. Japan and the U.S. have different policy approaches to addressing disaster risk.
Community-Focused Approach
In Japan, disaster management is primarily focused on community education and preparation. Citizens are taught and expected to know 1) the typical natural events that cause disasters in Japan; 2) how to prepare for a disaster; and 3) their role in disaster response and recovery.
Japanese schools conduct earthquake, tsunami, and evacuation drills throughout the school year with varied scenarios.[4] School curriculum integrates the science behind earthquakes and tsunamis, the importance of preparedness, and how to respond during a disaster; teachers implement storytelling and historical lessons on past disasters; and students are trained and equipped with first-aid resources and communication plans.
Local neighborhood associations organize residents for drills and maintain communication networks.[5] Some communities have Community Emergency Management Teams that work with local governments to develop disaster response plans tailored for their community. Communities also have designated evacuation centers, with some having communal storage facilities for emergency supplies.
Equipping communities and individuals with extensive disaster knowledge and training aids in disaster response and recovery by:
While a community-focused approach has many benefits, its effectiveness can be hindered by population changes. Communities may no longer have the capability to implement these plans effectively due to population decreases or demographic shifts (e.g., transitioning from multi-generational to retirement communities).[9] These communities need external support to respond to and recover from disaster.
National Workforce Approach
In the U.S., disaster management policy has focused on developing a uniform disaster response and recovery standard nationwide and increasing the disaster workforce by creating career opportunities. The U.S. Congress passed the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act), which governs federal disaster preparedness, resilience, response, and recovery activities.[10] The Stafford Act enabled the U.S. government to create a federal disaster response and recovery workforce that works under the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to respond to presidentially declared disaster events. FEMA positions vary from on-call disaster roles that respond as needed, to permanent full-time employees who conduct long-term disaster support functions.[11] FEMA employs over 20,000 citizens to conduct disaster operations.[12]
The Department of Homeland Security developed the National Response Framework, which outlines how the U.S. responds to all disasters and identifies the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders.[13] The National Incident Management System was also developed to provide a consistent nationwide approach that enables governments at all levels, private sector, and NGOs to work together to prevent, protect against, mitigate, respond to, and recover from disasters.[14]
A unified system for disaster response and a national workforce dedicated to helping communities before, during, and after disasters contribute to disaster response and recovery by:
However, a focus on a national workforce and unified response presents challenges. Communities may not see the need to invest time and money in educating and training their members about disasters and how to respond. Additionally, significant funding is required to implement a national workforce. The unique challenges faced by different communities may not be fully captured in national disaster planning, response, recovery, and resilience efforts.
Issue: DRR Workforce Capacity Strains and National Security
Workforce Capacity Constraints
Japan and the U.S. employ different policy approaches to managing disaster risk, but both require a capable workforce. The community-focused approach depends on healthy communities across an entire country. In Japan, rural communities have experienced a migration of young individuals moving to metropolitan areas, leaving rural populations reduced and predominantly aging.[17] This trend affects DRR efforts, because rural communities have a smaller capacity to respond to and recover from disaster events. The reduced capacity, combined with a highly aging population, can result in longer recovery timelines, diminished response capacity, and delays in implementing resilience initiatives.[18]
The national workforce approach requires a steady balance between incoming and outgoing personnel. In the U.S., FEMA has experienced a high turnover rate among employees. FEMA personnel have experienced a decline in morale due to issues such as workload, deployment length, and lack of career development.[19] If more personnel retire or resign than are hired and retained, workforce capacity constraints will limit DRR efforts across the nation.[20]
National Security
Natural disasters are becoming more frequent and are increasingly impacting people globally. The U.S. and Japan have experienced significant impacts from natural disasters, such as loss of life, displacement, damage to critical infrastructure, and economic loss. The effects of natural disasters also present national security risks:
DRR workforce capacity constraints exacerbate the national security risks associated with natural disasters in the U.S. and Japan by causing delays in response and recovery for affected communities.
The U.S. and Japan are both countries that value independence and freedom. Securing their independence and preserving their status as free nations in today’s global environment requires strong alliances with like-minded countries. Building and maintaining such alliances demands ongoing communication, effort, and commitment. One way for the U.S. and Japan to strengthen their alliance is through DRR, resilience, and recovery engagement, along with mutual knowledge sharing.
Recommendation #1: Increase DRR Knowledge Sharing Between the U.S. and Japan
Considering workforce capacity restraints, response and recovery efforts in the U.S. would benefit from incorporating policies from Japan’s community workforce approach. These policies would enhance U.S. disaster resilience by empowering local communities to participate in DRR efforts. Educated and trained communities can help reduce FEMA’s workload and contribute to better DRR policy. Specific policy recommendations include:
Japan would also benefit from incorporating policies from the U.S. national workforce approach. These policies would provide more resources for communities experiencing population decline or demographic shifts. Having long-term disaster personnel to support community needs and conduct timely DRR work that community members cannot manage on their own will increase Japan’s disaster resilience. Additionally, developing a nationwide standard for response and recovery practices will ensure equal and consistent DRR practices for all communities. Specific policy recommendations include:
The effectiveness of these recommendations increases when Japan and the U.S. engage in knowledge sharing. Both countries have proven strengths, and sharing this knowledge avoids redundancy. Knowledge sharing also strengthens bilateral support during disaster response and recovery, as it fosters a better understanding of each country’s DRR operations.
Recommendation #2: Increase the Accessibility of Working in DRR for Women
Women are valuable members of communities and the workforce. Increasing the participation of women in DRR is essential to enhancing a nation’s DRR capabilities. In particular, women bring unique perspectives that can lead to 1) peacemaking during stressful response and recovery situations; and 2) DRR policy initiatives that protect vulnerable populations. These values are recognized globally through the Women, Peace and Security (WPS) framework.
WPS is a global framework that addresses the impact of conflict on women and ensures women’s participation in peacebuilding, conflict resolution, and security processes. The four pillars of the WPS agenda are:
In 2015, Japan first committed to WPS by creating its first National Action Plan (NAP) on WPS. The NAP was developed with input from civil society and focused on the four main pillars of WPS. Japan updated its NAP in 2019 and 2023 to incorporate lessons learned and include improvements to its structure.[22] In 2017, the U.S. codified the WPS agenda through the Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017 (U.S. WPS Strategy) and incorporated the four WPS pillars. In 2023, the U.S. created the U.S. Strategy and National Action Plan on Women, Peace and Security.
An element of both the U.S. and Japan’s NAPs is the increased inclusion of women and prioritizing the needs of women in DRR and disaster recovery. Specifically, Japan’s NAP identifies 1) international efforts; and 2) efforts to strengthen the capacity of domestic ministries and agencies and to promote women’s participation in DRR.[23]
The U.S. 2023 NAP identifies the following line of effort to address the WPS agenda in the DRR and disaster recovery context:
“Relief, Response, and Recovery: Prioritize gender-responsive policies and programs to support the safety, participation, and leadership of women and girls in U.S. government responses to conflict, crises, and disasters; reinforce women’s agency and decision-making at every-level of relief, response, and recovery efforts; and provide safe, equitable access to humanitarian assistance.”[24]
The stated approach to address this line of effort related to DRR and disaster recovery includes: 1) “collaboration with partner nations and international organizations for disaster preparedness, risk reduction, and mitigation;” and 2) “increase, as appropriate, representation and leadership of women and girls, specifically women-led organizations and local women leaders, in emergency management…”[25]
Both the U.S. and Japan have recognized the need to increase the presence of women in the DRR workforce through adopting WPS-specific plans. Additionally, given that both countries face a DRR workforce capacity shortage, government actions to increase women’s participation in DRR are urgently needed for the health and national security of both countries.
Hurdles for the Advancement of Women in DRR
Women face several hurdles in obtaining consistent and secure employment in the DRR workforce, particularly in decision-making and policy-making roles. Three critical issues are pay equality, work-life balance, and career progression opportunities.
Pay Equality
In the U.S., there is approximately a 16 percent wage gap between full-time, year-round working men and women. In Japan, the wage gap is around 22 percent for full-time, year-round workers. Looking specifically at managerial positions—often decision-making and policy-making positions—a full-time female manager in the U.S. earns about 71 cents for every dollar earned by a full-time male manager, reflecting a 29 percent wage gap.[26] Japan’s 22 percent wage gap underscores a broader issue: the country’s female representation in leadership and senior management ranks among the lowest globally across both public and private sectors.[27]
The persistent gender wage gap means women must work longer hours to achieve the same level of financial stability as men. From a financial cost-benefit point of view, managerial positions are often less desirable for women. This disparity impacts DRR because fewer women are likely to pursue managerial roles in their DRR careers, leading to a shortage of women in decision-making and policy-making positions within DRR.
Traditional Work Requirements and Work-Life Balance
Women often fulfill dual roles as professionals and primary caregivers. Between 2021 and 2022, approximately 14 percent of the U.S. population (37.1 million people) provided unpaid elder care.[28] Of these, 21.6 percent were women with children under the age of 18 in the household.[29] Similarly, Japan’s Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare reported that approximately 19.4 percent of women with children in Japan performed unpaid eldercare.[30]
Providing care for a loved one is seen by many as a valuable and honorable responsibility that should be supported rather than viewed as a burden. However, traditional workplace benefits and leave policies—or lack thereof—can force women to choose between caregiving and participating in the workforce. Women are crucial contributors in both roles.
In the DRR workspace, disaster recovery and response practitioners have job requirements outside the traditional 8-hour workday. In the U.S., all positions within FEMA are subject to recall around the clock for emergency management operations, which can include irregular work hours, varying work locations, and duties outside of a person’s job description. Travel requirements can range from weeks to months with little advance notice. During disaster events, these work requirements cause strain on individuals and households, particularly when policies and benefits to support caregivers are insufficient. Providing robust caregiving support policies and benefits is essential for cultivating growth and sustaining a population of women in the DRR workforce.
Career Progression Opportunities
While the wage gap and work-life balance issues affect career progression, women also face restricted access to professional development opportunities and job mobility because of part-time employment. In the U.S., 63 percent of part-time workers are women, compared to 37 percent for men.[31] In Japan, approximately 70 percent of part-time workers are women.[32]
Training programs, workshops, and mentoring opportunities are frequently designed for full-time employees.[33] Part-time positions are often excluded from career progression ladders within organizations, leaving part-time workers with limited opportunities for advancement.[34] In the DRR field, this lack of part-time career paths results in fewer opportunities for women to enter or progress in the DRR field. Furthermore, restricted access to professional development for part-time workers limits their potential for advancement in DRR roles, perpetuating the cycle of fewer women in DRR leadership positions.
Action Items to Increase the Accessibility of Working in DRR for Women
In response to the hurdles women face in obtaining work and a voice in DRR, the U.S. and Japan can take the following actions:
Conclusion
Natural disasters pose an inevitable and growing global challenge that demands international cooperation to mitigate risks and protect national security. The U.S.-Japan alliance exemplifies how two nations can strengthen resilience by sharing DRR policies and best practices. By combining Japan’s community-focused approaches with the U.S.’s national workforce strategies, both countries can enhance disaster preparedness and recovery efforts.
Equally important is the integration of women into DRR initiatives through the WPS agenda. Women bring valuable perspectives that improve community resilience, accelerate recovery efforts, and contribute to long-term national security. However, addressing barriers such as the wage gap, work-life balance, and limited career advancement opportunities is essential to building a sustainable, inclusive DRR workforce in both countries.
As natural disasters become more frequent and severe, advancing U.S.-Japan cooperation and increasing women’s participation in DRR are crucial for fostering resilient communities and promoting peace and stability. By adopting these strategies, both nations can better protect their citizens and infrastructure while setting a global standard for DRR and resilience.
Ms. Michelle Ellis wrote in her personal capacity. The views and interpretations expressed by the author are solely her own.
Ms. Michelle Ellis works at the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) where she has developed experience and training in U.S. disaster response and recovery. At FEMA, she worked as an appeals supervisor and currently works as a VAYGo Supervisor and in the Regional Response Coordination Center (RRCC). As an appeals supervisor, she adjudicated appeals and worked with disaster policy. While working in the RRCC, she has gained experience and knowledge in coordinating with federal, state, tribal, and local partners to conduct a unified disaster response. At FEMA, her work involves the intersection between disaster risk reduction (DRR) and gender because of her duty to help people before, during, and after disasters. In appeals, Ms. Ellis has seen how disaster policy affects communities and identifies policy improvements. In the RRCC, there are opportunities to participate in disaster response exercises with federal, state, tribal, and local partners and practice disaster response and recovery efforts. During this process, there is space to apply a gender lens and identify areas where gender-based policy can be improved. FEMA’s core values (compassion, fairness, integrity, and respect) guide her work. Under the core values, she has the space and opportunity to apply a gender lens to disaster response and recovery work and policy.
[1] “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030,” United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), 2015, https://www.undrr.org/publication/sendai-framework-disaster-risk-reduction-2015-2030.
[2] “National disaster risk assessment: Governance system, methodology, and use of results (Part 1),” United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2017, https://www.unisdr.org/files/52828_nationaldisasterriskassessmentpart1.pdf.
[3] Ibid.
[4] “White Paper on Disaster Management in Japan,” Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, 2020, 48-52, https://www.bousai.go.jp/en/documentation/white_paper/pdf/2020/PI1-1.pdf.
[5] “White paper on disaster management,” Cabinet Office, 2020, 53-55.
[6] Ibid., 43.
[7] Ibid., 53.
[8] Ibid., 43.
[9] Ibid., 39.
[10] “Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, as amended, and related authorities (42 U.S.C. §§ 5121-5207),” Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 2019, https://www.fema.gov/disaster/stafford-act.
[11] “Career paths,” FEMA, DHS, Accessed January 2025, https://www.fema.gov/careers/paths.
[12] “About FEMA,” FEMA, DHS, Accessed January 2025, https://www.fema.gov/about.
[13] “National response framework (4th ed.),” FEMA, 2019, https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/national-preparedness/frameworks/response.
[14] “National incident management system (3rd ed.),” FEMA, 2019, https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/nims.
[15] “National disaster recovery framework (3rd ed.),” DHS, 2024, https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_national-disaster-recovery-framework-third-edition_2024.pdf.
[16] “2018-2022 FEMA strategic plan: Helping people before, during, and after disasters,” FEMA, DHS, 2018, 20-27, https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-03/fema-strategic-plan_2018-2022.pdf.
[17] Wenqi Li., Li Zhang, Inhee Lee, & Menelaos Gkartzios, “Overview of social policies for town and village development in response to rural shrinkage in East Asia: The cases of Japan, South Korea and China,” Sustainability, 2023, https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410781.
[18] “White paper on disaster management,” Cabinet Office, 2020.
[19] ”FEMA: Increased Demand and Capacity Strains,” Congressional Research Service, 2025, 39, https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF12834.
[20] “2022-2026 FEMA strategic plan: Building the FEMA our nation needs and deserves,” FEMA, DHS, 2021, 19-25, https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_2022-2026-strategic-plan.pdf.
[21] “Parliaments as partners supporting the Women, Peace and Security agenda: A global handbook,” United Nations Development Programme, Accessed January 2025, https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/publications/Parliament_as_partners_supporting_the_Women_Peace_and_Security_Agenda_-_A_Global_Handbook.pdf.
[22] “National action plan on women, peace and security (provisional translation),” Government of Japan, 2019, https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000521395.pdf.
[23] “National action plan on women, peace and security,” Government of Japan, 2019, 9-10; 11-12, https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000521395.pdf.
[24] “United States national action plan on women, peace, and security,” The White House, 4, 2023, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/U.S.-Strategy-and-National-Action-Plan-on-Women-Peace-and-Security.pdf.
[25] Ibid., 14.
[26] “Women in management: Analysis of gender representation and pay gaps across industries (GAO-23-106320),” U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2023, https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-23-106320.
[27] M. Vasishth, K. Asao, & P. Khera, “Why such few women in leadership positions in Japan?” International Monetary Fund Selected Issues Paper (SIP/2024/024), 2024, 2.
[28] “Unpaid eldercare in the United States: 2021-2022 (USDL-23-2025),” U.S. Department of Labor, 2023, https://www.bls.gov/news.release/elcare.nr0.htm.
[29] “Eldercare providers by sex and selected characteristics related to care provided, averages for the combined years 2021-2022,” U.S. Department of Labor, 2023, https://www.bls.gov/news.release/elcare.t02.htm.
[30] “Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions,” Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, 2023, https://www.mhlw.go.jp/.
[31] “Full-time and part-time employment: Latest annual data,” U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, 2023, https://www.dol.gov/agencies/wb/data/latest-annual-data/full-and-part-time-employment.
[32] “Labour force-survey: Detailed tabulation,” Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, 2023, https://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/roudou/index.html.
[33] “Diversity, equity and inclusion in the workplace: A survey report,” Pew Research Center, 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org; “White Paper on Gender Equality,” Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2023, https://www.gender.go.jp/.
[34] “Career Progressions and Wage Growth: Is There a One-Size-Fits-All Job Ladder?” Richmond Federal Reserve, 2023, https://www.richmondfed.org.
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