The reflections and accounts in this paper were drawn from select engagements held during the Sasakawa USA Emerging Experts Delegation (SEED) program on Strengthening Disaster Risk Reduction through Women, Peace and Security in July 2024. The program brought U.S. disaster risk reduction (DRR) experts to Japan to learn about Japan’s progress in implementing Women, Peace and Security (WPS) in the disaster context by meeting with national and local governments, the private sector, and civil society organizations who work on these issues. This paper highlights the delegation’s engagements with academics at the forefront of research in DRR and gender in Tokyo. The delegates also participated in a field study in Tohoku and Noto to meet with local government officials and community leaders affected by the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake, and identified challenges, successes, and areas of opportunity for the U.S. and Japan to strengthen their respective and collaborative gender-inclusive disaster response efforts.
Introduction
Japan is one of the most disaster-prone nations in the world, regularly experiencing earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons, and volcanic eruptions. Due to its geographical location along the Pacific Ring of Fire, it is highly susceptible to these natural hazards. Over the years, Japan has become adept at managing disaster risks and has made significant advancements in disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies. The country’s experience with these recurring events has instilled a strong culture of preparedness and response, with robust infrastructure and systems in place to mitigate disaster impacts. However, with the intensification of climate change and the frequency of extreme weather events on the rise, Japan must continue to adapt and evolve its disaster management approaches to address new and emerging risks.[1]
One often overlooked yet crucial aspect of disaster risk management is the intersection of gender and disaster resilience. Research has shown that women, particularly in vulnerable social and economic positions, often experience the impacts of disasters differently than men. In many cases, they face heightened vulnerability due to pre-existing social inequalities, limited access to resources, and restricted decision-making power. For instance, women may have greater caregiving responsibilities, which can complicate evacuation and recovery efforts. Additionally, they may face increased risks of gender-based violence, loss of livelihoods, and challenges in accessing emergency services. These gendered impacts underscore the need for disaster management strategies to account for the unique needs and experiences of women.
Japan has made strides in integrating gender considerations into its disaster preparedness and response systems, but more work is needed to fully address the gendered dimensions of disaster risk. The intersection of gender and disaster resilience is closely connected to the Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda, which emphasizes the importance of women’s participation and leadership in peacebuilding, security, and disaster management. In disaster contexts, women’s involvement in decision-making processes has been shown to lead to more effective and inclusive outcomes.
Gender-responsive disaster management ensures that all stages of disaster management—from preparedness and response to recovery and rehabilitation—address the specific needs of both men and women. Women, particularly those in vulnerable social positions or with caregiving responsibilities, often face heightened challenges during disasters, such as limited access to emergency services, information, and recovery assistance. Their experiences of displacement, food insecurity, and exposure to violence can be exacerbated by existing gender inequalities.
In addition to addressing vulnerabilities, women’s knowledge, leadership, and participation play a crucial role in strengthening disaster resilience and recovery. Engaging women in decision-making processes and leadership roles in disaster management not only ensures more inclusive outcomes but also enhances the overall effectiveness of disaster preparedness and response. Disasters affect individuals differently, and by considering the distinct needs of women, as well as other vulnerable groups such as the elderly, children, and people with disabilities, Japan can foster more inclusive and comprehensive disaster management strategies. By doing so, the country can better protect all its citizens and strengthen its resilience to future disasters.
While Japan has made significant progress in DRR, integrating gender considerations into disaster resilience strategies is essential for building a more inclusive and effective disaster management system. By recognizing the distinct vulnerabilities that women face and empowering them to participate in decision-making, Japan can enhance its capacity to respond to and recover from disasters, ensuring a more resilient future for all.
Disaster Risk Reduction in Japan
Given the country’s high vulnerability to natural disasters, which occur frequently, the Japanese people deeply understand the importance of preparedness. These disasters have caused widespread devastation, resulting in loss of life, property, and economic hardship. Despite these challenges, Japan has developed advanced disaster management strategies, including early warning systems, resilient infrastructure, and comprehensive educational programs to better equip communities for disaster response and recovery.
According to the World Economic Forum, the innovative Japan Bosai Platform is a cross-industry platform utilizing public-private-academic partnerships (with over 100 members from diverse industries) to support DRR in Japan.[2] Japan has been a global leader in promoting DRR with the international frameworks such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.[3] Japan has also done a great job at incorporating DRR into national policy and creating disaster response plans. They have also invested in community-level preparedness, including evacuation drills and hazard mapping.
Women, Peace and Security in Japan
The Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda was established under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) to address the disproportionate impact of conflict and insecurity on women.[4] The WPS agenda has since evolved, making the focus broader, including issues of humanitarian response, conflict prevention, and post-disaster recovery. In 2015, Japan adopted its own National Action Plan on WPS which emphasizes women’s participation in peace processes, conflict prevention, and post-conflict reconstruction. It expanded to include disaster resilience and climate change as well.
The WPS agenda is not only about placing women in leadership roles or having them sit at the decision-making table. It is about ensuring that women’s perspectives, needs, and voices are woven into every aspect of the conversation, and that action is taken based on their input. While gender is a central focus of WPS, it is also crucial to recognize that preparedness planning must include all vulnerable groups. This encompasses not only women but also children, the elderly, people with disabilities, and foreigners, among others. Ensuring the inclusion of these diverse populations in disaster preparedness is essential for creating more resilient and equitable disaster management systems.
The Intersection of Disaster Risk Reduction and Women, Peace, and Security
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 aims to minimize the impacts of disasters and strengthen resilience. The Gender Action Plan for the Implementation of the Sendai Framework (Sendai GAP) is designed to significantly enhance gender-responsive DRR by 2030. The guiding principles of the Sendai Framework emphasize the importance of incorporating a gender perspective into all DRR policies and actions, and stress the value of women’s involvement and leadership.[5]
Women of many cultures suffer gender inequalities. Japan has been working hard on this but many of the older, more rural towns are further behind in progress. Disasters worsen pre-existing gender inequalities, including access to resources, decision-making, and social networks. Women, especially with caregiving responsibilities or vulnerable social positions, are more likely to experience displacement, food insecurity, and exposure to violence during and after disasters.
My Experience in Japan
Japan is a beautiful country. While I was visiting, I experienced a culture very different from that of the U.S., a culture of respect, cooperation, tradition, and harmony. We visited with private, public, and government entities, mothers, business owners, communities, and so many more who told us their experiences of being a woman in Japan, as well as the preparedness, response and recovery efforts from the disasters in their communities. We were able to visit the communities impacted by The Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011 and the Noto Peninsula Earthquake in January 2024. We heard the stories from the communities on how the day transpired and how they jumped into action. We heard from business owners who were not originally part of the preparedness plan and how they were able to provide a safe place for their community during these times. We heard how foreigners had different experiences during disasters, not always positive. We talked about post-event mental health concerns and how many of these needs are unmet, especially in rural communities, which is not unlike the U.S. You could feel the pride in the work they have done thus far and the urgency to continue to close the gaps they have identified and evolve the plans to address new threats.
Policy Recommendations
Japan should be proud of the work they have completed to date, domestically and internationally. We all have more work to do in both DRR and WPS individually but also as they intersect. Below are some recommendations to continue the growth in the intersections of DRR and WPS.
Establish Gender-Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction
Japan has a “Gender Equality Bureau” who has worked on stockpile and shelter checklists that focus on the needs of women and children.[6] The shelter checklists outline privacy, special care, toilets, bathing facilities, safety, and other recommendations. This is a great start and evolving this further will only make for better preparedness and response.
Multiple groups are conducting gap analyses or needs assessments. It is important that these are being heard and submitted to the appropriate levels for decision making. Remembering that all disasters are local, local leaders need to be involved in national policymaking.
Women need to not only be at the table, but also be a valued and respected member of the team. Incorporating women into all aspects of disaster planning from top to bottom is imperative. Getting young women involved early to help them understand the importance of being included and having a voice is key to strengthening women’s involvement.
Part of improving services is ensuring that the people involved understand the “why” behind the decisions. In evacuation centers and shelters, women and girls will need to have a safe place to dress, bathe, and use the toilet. Separate bathrooms and feminine hygiene supplies are paramount. Gender-based violence also increases during disasters and having these safe practices already planned will help preemptively address this issue.
Increase Participation in Preparedness Planning and Exercises
As previously mentioned, disasters start locally. The initial response will be all local policies, procedures, and personnel. Once it is beginning to overwhelm locals, they will reach out for support.
Incorporating government, non-profit, and for-profit entities to discuss disasters will lead to more thorough plans and innovative ideas. There are multiple groups focused on gender equities that have done research, conducted interviews, and documented their findings which could be highly beneficial to planning. Each region of the country will have different needs and cultural differences. Capitalizing on these relationships will help the locals be ready in a time of increased disasters and uncertainty.
The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) have sent all-female teams to earthquake and tsunami locations and has been well received. Developing “specialized” teams in advance and allowing them to conduct exercises with the local communities will help build relationships and bring awareness to the JSDF on ways to approach the communities and gaps they can fill.
Enhance International Collaboration on Gender-Responsive Disaster Risk Reduction
Japan is a leader in global DRR efforts which provides them an opportunity to share their best practices internationally and foster international cooperation on gender-responsive disaster management. Japan should continue to champion the integration of gender into the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, working closely with other nations and international organizations to develop and implement gender-sensitive DRR policies and programs. By sharing its experiences and knowledge, Japan can strengthen global DRR efforts and promote greater inclusivity.
Strengthen Public Awareness and Education on Gender and Disasters
Raising public awareness about the intersection of gender and disasters is key to fostering a culture of resilience in Japan. Japan should invest in educational campaigns to increase awareness of the specific vulnerabilities of women and girls during disasters, as well as the importance of women’s leadership in disaster preparedness and recovery. Such efforts can be integrated into national disaster preparedness campaigns and curricula for schools, creating a more informed and resilient society.
Lessons for the United States
The United States could learn much from Japan. While Japan is in a disaster-prone region, the United States is also experiencing an increase in natural disasters every year. The U.S. could make improvements not only in developing inclusive policies but also in coordinating exercises/planning with communities. Local community members are often excluded from preparedness planning, with the process typically limited to local entities such as emergency managers, health departments, the Red Cross, and other organizations. While these entities play a critical role in considering the needs of shelters and response efforts, involving community members will increase the success of a response.
The U.S. does not integrate much disaster preparedness in youth education. If a major disaster occurred, the majority of Americans would be looking to their phones, televisions, or radios for guidance. Schools focus on drills for active shooters, fires, and occasionally tornadoes, but these are often limited to responses within the school. Youth would benefit from the community emergency plans being discussed within schools. What do we do if there is a rapidly spreading wildfire? What do we do at home, while driving, or in a store when a tornado hits? What do we do when there is rapid flooding? Earthquakes are not as common, but do citizens know what to do during an earthquake? Teaching students the safest places to evacuate, how to notify first responders where they are, and how to help others in the local area would enhance their preparedness significantly.
The United States could also invest more into early warning systems, as Japan does. While the National Weather Service issues warnings, oftentimes they come in the midst of the event. Stricter building codes could also help to protect infrastructure and make our communities more resilient against disasters. Furthermore, a focus on mental health services available for the community in disaster response efforts, offering counseling, stress management, and long-term psychological support would address the emotional toll imposed upon those affected by natural disasters.
Conclusion
Japan has made significant progress in disaster risk reduction, developing advanced systems and strategies to prepare for natural hazards. However, as climate change continues to intensify disaster risks, Japan must adopt a more inclusive approach that recognizes the specific vulnerabilities and strengths of women and marginalized groups. Disasters frequently worsen existing social inequalities, making women, the elderly, children, and people with disabilities more susceptible to their effects. To address these challenges, Japan must integrate gender-sensitive policies into its disaster management framework. By focusing on the unique needs of women and marginalized communities, Japan can build a more resilient society. Women’s participation, leadership, and empowerment play a critical role in disaster risk reduction and recovery. Women possess valuable knowledge of their communities, making their participation in decision-making processes crucial for effective disaster management. Including women in leadership roles and ensuring they have access to resources, training, and decision-making platforms will enhance disaster resilience.
These policy recommendations align with Japan’s commitments under the WPS agenda which emphasizes the importance of gender equality in disaster management, peacebuilding, and security. By embracing a gender-responsive approach to disaster risk reduction, Japan can promote a holistic strategy that addresses the diverse needs of its population.
Implementing these recommendations will not only enhance Japan’s domestic disaster resilience but also position the country as a global leader in inclusive disaster risk management. Japan’s commitment to ensuring that all citizens, regardless of gender, age, or disability, are included in disaster preparedness and recovery will contribute to more sustainable and equitable resilience-building efforts, both within the country and internationally.
As natural disasters increase in frequency and severity in the U.S., adopting more comprehensive strategies that involve community members in planning, response, and recovery efforts will significantly enhance the effectiveness of disaster management. By learning from Japan’s inclusive disaster management model, the U.S. can develop a more holistic, proactive, and sustainable approach to disaster risk reduction and recovery. The U.S.-Japan relationship should be leaned upon for both countries to continue to strengthen their DRR and WPS, making us stronger together.
Ms. Angela Ling wrote in her personal capacity. The views and interpretations expressed by the author are solely her own.
Ms. Angela Ling is the regional director at the University of Nebraska Medical Center’s Global Center for Health Security. She is also an emergency medicine nurse practitioner and the commander of the Medical Detachment for the Nebraska CBRN Enhanced Response Force Package. Angela has been working in disaster planning and response for 15 years. She is active in global health engagement on the continent of Africa where she has participated in Women, Peace and Security engagements. Ms. Ling was activated with the Nebraska National Guard in 2020 for the COVID-19 pandemic response and was later asked to be the incident commander for Nebraska’s pandemic response.
[1] “How the Climate Crisis Impacts Japan,” The Climate Reality Project, August 7, 2019, https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/how-climate-crisis-impacts-japan.
[2] “Japan’s pioneering early warning system offers blueprint for climate adaptation efforts,” World Economic Forum, September 15, 2023, https://www.weforum.org/stories/2023/09/japans-early-warning-systems-blueprint-climate-adaptation-efforts/.
[3] “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030,” United Nations Office of Disaster Risk Reduction, Accessed March 2025, https://www.preventionweb.net/publication/sendai-framework-disaster-risk-reduction-2015-2030.
[4]“Gender, Women, Peace and Security,” Political and Peacebuilding Affairs, Accessed March 2025, https://dppa.un.org/en/women-peace-and-security.
[5] “Sendai Gender Action Plan,” United Nations Office of Disaster Risk Reduction, Accessed March 2025, https://www.preventionweb.net/sendai-framework/sendai-framework-for-disaster-risk-reduction/SendaiGAP.
[6] “Gender Equality and Disaster Risk Reduction,” Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, Accessed March 2025, https://www.gender.go.jp/english_contents/mge/drr/index.html.
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